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PTS Pali-English dictionary - The Pali Text Society's Pali-English dictionary
Yakkha,[Vedic yakṣa,quick ray of light,but also “ghost”; fr.yaks to move quickly; perhaps:swift creatures,changing their abode quickly and at will.-- The customary (popular) etym.of Pali Commentators is y.as quâsi grd.of yaj,to sacrifice,thus:a being to whom a sacrifice (of expiation or propitiation) is given.See e.g.VvA.224:yajanti tattha baliṁ upaharantī ti yakkhā; or VvA.333:pūjanīya-bhavato yakkho ti vuccati.-- The term yakṣa as attendants of Kubera occurs already in the Upanishads.] 1.name of certain non-human beings,as spirits,ogres,dryads,ghosts,spooks.Their usual epithet and category of being is amanussa,i.e.not a human being (but not a sublime god either); a being half deified and of great power as regards influencing people (partly helping,partly hurting).They range in appearance immediately above the Petas; many “successful” or happy Petas are in fact Yakkhas (see also below).They correspond to our “genii” or fairies of the fairy-tales and show all their qualities.In many respects they correspond to the Vedic Piśācas,though different in many others,and of diff.origin.Historically they are remnants of an ancient demonology and of considerable folkloristic interest,as in them old animistic beliefs are incorporated and as they represent creatures of the wilds and forests,some of them based on ethnological features.See on term e.g.Dial.III,188; on their history and identity Stede,Gespenstergeschichten des Peta Vatthu chap.v.; pp.39--44.-- They are sometimes called devatā:S.I,205; or devaputtā:PvA.113,139.A female Yakkha is called yakkhinī (q.v.).
2.Their usual capacity is one of kindness to men (cp.Ger.Rūbezahl).They are also interested in the spiritual welfare of those humans with whom they come into contact,and are something like “tutelary genii” or even “angels” (i.e.messengers from another world) who will save prospective sinners from doing evil (cp.Pv IV.1).They also act as guides in the “inferno”:Pv IV.11,cp.IV.3.A somewhat dangerous “Mentor” is represented at D.I,95,where the y.Vajirapāṇī threatens to slay Ambaṭṭha with an iron hammer,if he does not answer the Bhagavā.He is represented as hovering in the air; Bdhgh.(DA.I,264) says on this:na yo vā so vā yakkho,Sakko devarājā ti veditabbo:it is to be understood not as this or that y.but as Sakka the king of devas.-- Whole cities stand under the protection of,or are inhabited by yakkhas; D.II,147 (ākiṇṇa-yakkha full of y.; thus Āḷakamandā may here mean all kinds of supra-mundane beings),cp.Lankā (Ceylon) as inhabited by y.:Mhvs 7,33.-- Often,however,they are cruel and dangerous.The female yakkhas seem on the whole more fearful and evilnatured than the male (see under yakkhinī).They eat flesh and blood:J.IV,549; devour even men:D.II,346; J.II,15--17,or corpses:J.I,265; mentioned under the 5 ādīnavā (dangers) at A.III,256.A yakkha wants to kill Sāriputta:Ud.4.
3.Var.classes of y.are enumd at D.II,256,257; in a progressive order they rank between manussa and gandhabba at A.II,38; they are mentioned with devas,rakkhasas,dānavas,gandhabbas,kinnaras and mah’oragas at J.V,420.According to VvA.333 Sakka,the 4 great kings (lokapālā),the followers of Vessavaṇa (alias Yama,the yakkhas proper) and men (see below 7) go by the name of yakkha.-- Sakka,the king of the devas,is often named yakkha:J.IV,4; DA.I,264.Some are spirits of trees (rukkha-devatā):J.III,309 345; Pv.I,9; II,9; PvA.5; are also called bhumma-devā (earthly deities) PvA.45,55.Their cult seems to originate primarily from the woods (thus in trees:Pv.II,9; IV,3),and secondarily from the legends of sea-faring merchants (cp.the story of the flyingDutchman).To the latter origin point the original descriptions of a Vimāna or fairy-palace,which is due to a sort of mirage.These are usually found in or at the sea,or in the neighbourhood of silent lakes,where the sense of hauntedness has given rise to the fear of demons or supernatural witchcraft.Cp.the entrances to a Vimāna by means of a dried-up river bed (Pv.I,9; II,12) and the many descriptions of the Vimānas in the Lake-districts of the Himavant in Vv.(See Stede,Peta Vatthu trsln p.104 sq.)
4.Their names too give us a clue as to their origin and function.These are taken from (a) their bodily appearance,which possesses many of the attributes of Petas,e.g.Khara “Rough-skin” or “Shaggy” Sn.p.48 (=khara-samphassaṁ cammaṁ SnA 302),also as Khara-loma “Rough-hair” Vism.208; Khara-dāṭhika “Rough-tooth” J.I,31.Citta “Speckled” Mhvs 9,22; 10,4; also as Citta-rājā J.II,372; Mhvs 10,84.Silesa-loma “Sticky-hair” J.I,273.Sūci-loma “Needlehair” Sn.p.47,48; S.I,207; Vism.208; SnA 302.--(b) places of inhabitance,attributes of their realm,animals and plants,e.g.Ajakalāpaka “Goat-bundle” Ud.1.Āḷavaka “Forest-dweller” J.IV,180; VI,329; Mhvs 30,84:Vism.208.Uppala “Lotus” DhA.IV,209.Kakudha “K.-tree” (Terminalia arjuna) S.I,54.Kumbhīra “Crocodile” J.VI,272.Gumbiya either “One of a troop” (soldier of Yama) or “Thicket-er” (fr.gumba thicket) J.III,200,201.Disāmukha “Skyfacer” DhA.IV,209.Yamamoli “Yamachignon” DhA.IV,208.Vajira “Thunderbolt” DhA.IV,209; alias Vajira-pāṇī D.I,95,or Vajira-bāhu DhA.IV,209.Sātāgira “Pleasant-mount” D.II,256; Sn.153; J.IV,314; VI,440.Serīsaka “Acacia-dweller” VvA.341 (the messenger of Vessavaṇa).-- (c) qualities of character,e.g.Adhamma “Unrighteous” Miln.202 (formerly Devadatta).Katattha “Well-wisher” DhA.IV,209.Dhamma “Righteous” Miln.202 (=Bodhisatta).Puṇṇaka “Full(-moon?)” J.VI,255 sq.(a leader of soldiers,nephew of Vessavaṇa).Māra the “Tempter” Sn.449; S.I,122; M.I,338.Sakata “Waggon-load” (of riches) DhA.IV,209 -- (d) embodiments of former persons,e.g.Janavasabha “Lord of men” D.II,205.Dīgha M.I,210.Naradeva J.VI,383,387.Paṇḍaka “Eunuch” Mhvs 12,21.Sīvaka S.I,241=Vin.II,156.Serī “Self-willed” S.I,57.-- Cp.the similar names of yakkhinīs.
5.They stand in a close relationship to and under the authority of Vessavaṇa (Kuvera),one of the 4 lokapālas.They are often the direct servants (messengers) of Yama himself,the Lord of the Underworld (and the Peta-realm especially).Cp.D.II,257; III,194 sq.; J.IV,492 (yakkhinī fetches water for Vessavaṇa); VI,255 sq.(Puṇṇaka,the nephew of V,); VvA.341 (Serīsaka,his messenger).In relation to Yama:dve yakkhā Yamassa dūtā Vv 522; cp.Np.Yamamolī DhA.IV,208.-- In harmony with tradition they share the rôle of their master Kuvera as lord of riches (cp.Pv.II,922) and are the keepers (and liberal spenders) of underground riches,hidden treasures etc.with which they delight men:see e.g.the frame story to Pv.II,11 (PvA.145),and to IV.12 (PvA.274).They enjoy every kind of splendour & enjoyment,hence their attribute kāma-kāmin Pv.I,33.Hence they possess supernatural powers,can transfer themselves to any place with their palaces and work miracles; a frequent attribute of theirs is mah’iddhika (Pv.II,910; J.VI,118).Their appearance is splendid,as a result of former merit:cp.Pv.I,2; I,9; II,11; IV,317.At the same time they are possessed of odd qualities (as result of former demerit); they are shy,and afraid of palmyra leaf & iron:J.IV,492; their eyes are red & do not wink:J.V,34; VI,336,337.-- Their abode is their self-created palace (Vimāna),which is anywhere in the air,or in trees etc.(see under vimāna).Sometimes we find a communion of yakkhas grouped in a town,e.g.Āḷakamandā D.II,147; Sirīsa-vatthu (in Ceylon) Mhvs 7,32.
6.Their essential human character is evident also from their attitude towards the “Dhamma.” In this respect many of them are “fallen angels” and take up the word of the Buddha,thus being converted and able to rise to a higher sphere of existence in saṁsāra.Cp.D.III,194,195; J.II,17; VvA.333; Pv.II,810 (where “yakkha” is expld by Dhpāla as “pet-attabhāvato cuto (so read for mato!) yakkho ataṁ jāto dev-attabhāvaṁ patto” PvA.110); SnA 301 (both Sūciloma & Khara converted).-- See in general also the foll.passages:Sn.153,179,273,449; S.I,206--15; A.I,160; Vism.366 (in simile); Miln.23.
7.Exceptionally the term “yakkha” is used as a philosophical term denoting the “individual soul” [cp.similar Vedic meaning “das lebendige Ding” (B.R.) at several AV.passages]; hence probably the old phrase:ettāvatā yakkhassa suddhi (purification of heart) Sn.478,quoted VvA.333 (ettāvat’aggaṁ no vadanti h’eke yakkhassa sudhiṁ idha paṇḍitāse).Sn.875 (cp.Nd1 282:yakkha=satta,nara,puggala,manussa).
--ânubhāva the potency of a yakkha J.I,240.--āviṭṭha possessed by a y.J.VI,586.--iddhi (yakkh°) magic power of a y.PvA.117,241.--gaṇa the multitude of ys.J.VI,287.--gaha=following DhA.III,362.--gāha “yakkha-grip,” being seized by a y.S.I,208; PvA.144.--ṭṭhāna the dwelling-place of a y.--dāsī “a female temple slave,” or perhaps “possessed by a demon” (?) J.VI,501 (v.l.BB devatā-paviṭṭhā cp.p.586:yakkh’āviṭṭhā.) --nagara city of ys.J.II,127 (=Sirīsavatthu); cp.pisāca-nagara.--pura id.Mhvs 7.32.--bhavana the realm or abode of the y.Nd1 448.--bhūta a yakkha-being,a ghost Pv III,52 (=pisāca-bhūta vā yakkha-bh.vā PvA.198); IV,135.--mahiddhi=°iddhi; Pv IV.154.--yoni the y.-world,realm of the y.SnA 301.--samāgama meeting of the y.PvA.55 (where also devaputtā join).--sūkara a y.in the form of a pig VbhA.494.--senā army of ys.D.III,194; SnA 209.--senāpati chief-commander of the yakkha-army J.IV,478; SnA 197.(Page 545)
Concise Pali-English Dictionary by A.P. Buddhadatta Mahathera
yakkha:[m.] a demon.
Buddhist Dictionary by NYANATILOKA MAHATHERA
yakkha:in popular belief,a kind of ghost,goblin.or ogre.
Buddhist Dictionary of Pali Proper Names by G P Malalasekera
Yakkha:A class of non human beings generally described as amanussā.They are mentioned with Devas,Rakkhasas,Dānavas,Gandhabbas,Kinnaras,and Mahoragas (? Nāgas) (E.g.J.v.420).
In other lists (E.g.PvA.45,55) they range immediately above the Petas; in fact,some of the happier Petas are called Yakkhas.Elsewhere (E.g.A.ii.38) they rank,in progressive order,between manussā and gandhabbā.They are of many different kinds:spirits,ogres,dryads,ghosts,spooks.In the early records,yakkha,like nāgā,as an appellative,was anything but depreciative.Thus not only is Sakka,king of the gods,so referred to (M.i.252; J.iv.4; DA.i.264),but even the Buddha is spoken of as a yakkha in poetic diction (M.i.386).Many gods,such as Kakudha,are so addressed (S.i.54).
According to a passage in the Vimānavatthu Commentary,(VvA.333) which gives illustrations,the term is used for Sakka,the Four Regent Gods (Mahārājāno),the followers of Vessavana,and also for puriso (individual soul?).In the scholiast to the Jayadissa Jātaka (J.v.33),the figure of the hare in the moon is also called yakkha.Of these above named,the followers of Vessavana appear to be the Yakkhas proper.The term yakkha as applied to purisa is evidently used in an exceptionally philosophical sense as meaning ”soul” in such passages as ettāvatā yakkhassa suddhi (SN.vs.478),or ettāvat’ aggam no vadanti h’ ekā,yakkhassa suddhim idha pānditāse (SN.vs.875).
In the Niddesa (MNid.282),yakkha is explained by satta,nara,mānava,posa,puggala,jīva,jagu,jantu,indagu,manuja.The last term is significant as showing that yakkha also means ”man.”
The cult of yakkhas seems to have arisen primarily from the woods and secondarily from the legends of sea faring merchants.To the latter origin belong the stories connected with vimānas found in or near the sea or in lakes.The worship of trees and the spirits inhabitating them is one of the most primitive forms of religion.Some,at least,of the yakkhas are called rukkha devatā (E.g.J.iii.309,345; Pv.i.9; PvA.5) (spirits of trees),and others bhummadevatā,(PvA.45,55) (spirits of the earth),who,too,seem to have resided in trees.Generally speaking,the Yakkhas were decadent divinities,beings half deified,having a deva’s supernormal powers,particularly as regards influencing people,partly helpful,partly harmful.They are sometimes called devatā (E.g.S.i.205),or devaputta (E.g.PvA.113,139).Some of these,like Indakūta and Suciloma,are capable of intelligent questioning on metaphysics and ethics.All of them possess supernatural powers; they can transfer themselves at will,to any place,with their abodes,and work miracles,such as assuming any shape at will.An epithet frequently applied is mahiddhika (E.g.Pv.ii.9; J.vi.118).Their appearance is striking as a result of former good kamma (Pv.i.2,9; ii.11; iv.3,etc.).They are also called kāmakāmī,enjoying all kinds of luxuries (Pv.i.3),but,because of former bad kamma,they are possessed of odd qualities,thus they are shy,they fear palmyra leaf and iron.Their eyes are red and they neither wink nor cast a shadow.J.iv.492; v.34; vi.336,337; these various characteristics are,obviously,not found in all Yakkhas.The Yakkhas are evidently of different grades - as is the case with all classes of beings – the highest among them approximate very nearly to the devas and have deva-powers,the lowest resemble petas.The Yakkhas are specially mentioned as being afraid of palm leaves (J.iv.492).
Their abode is their self created palace,which is anywhere,in the air,in trees,etc.These are mostly ākasattha (suspended in the air),but some of them,like the abode of ālavaka,are bhumattha (on the ground) and are described as being fortified (SNA.i.222).Sometimes whole cities e.g.ālakamandā stand under the protection of,or are inhabited by,Yakkhas.
In many respects they resemble the Vedic Pisācas,though they are of different origin.They are evidently remnants of an ancient demonology and have had incorporated in them old animistic beliefs as representing creatures of the wilds and the forests,some of them based on ethnological features.(See Stede:Gespenstergeschichten des Petavatthu v.39ff ).
In later literature the Yakkhas have been degraded to the state of red eyed cannibal ogres.The female Yakkhas (Yakkhinī) are,in these cases,more fearful and evil minded than the male.They eat flesh and blood (J.iv.549; v.34); and devour even men (D.ii.346; J.ii.15ff.) and corpses (J.i.265).They eat babies (J.v.21; vi.336) and are full of spite and vengeance (DhA.i.47; ii.35f.).The story of Bhūta Thera is interesting because his elder brothers and sisters were devoured by a hostile Yakkha,so the last child is called Bhūta to propitiate the Yakkha by making him the child’s sponsor!
Ordinarily the attitude of the Yakkhas towards man is one of benevolence.They are interested in the spiritual welfare of the human beings with whom they come in contact and somewhat resemble tutelary genii.In the Atānātiya Sutta (D.iii.194f),however,the Yakkha king,Vessavana,is represented as telling the Buddha that,for the most part,the Yakkhas believe neither in the Buddha nor in his teachings,which enjoin upon his followers abstention from various evils and are therefore distasteful to some of the Yakkhas.Such Yakkhas are disposed to molest the followers of the Buddha in their woodland haunts.Cp.the story of the Yakkha who wished to kill Sāriputta (Ud.iv.4).But the Mahā Yakkhas (a list in D.iii.204f),the generals and commanders among Yakkhas,are always willing to help holy men and to prevent wicked Yakkhas from hurting them.Among Yakkhas are some beings who are sotāpannas - e.g.Janavasabha,Suciloma and Khara (s.v.).Some Yakkhas even act as messengers from another world,and will save prospective sinners from committing evil (Pv.iv.1).The case of the Yakkha Vajirapāni is of special interest.D.i.95.The Commentary (DA.i.264) says he is not an ordinary Yakkha,but Sakka himself.
He is represented as a kind of mentor,hovering in the air,threatening to kill Ambattha,if he does not answer the Buddha’s question the third time he is asked.In many cases the Yakkhas are ”fallen angels” and come eagerly to listen to the word of the Buddha in order to be able to rise to a higher sphere of existence e.g.Piyankaramātā and Punabbasumātā,and even Vessavana,listening to Velukandakī Nandamātā reciting the Parāyana Vagga (A.iv.63).At the preaching of the Mahāsamaya Sutta (q.v.) many hundreds of thousands of Yakkhas were present among the audience.
It has been pointed out (Stede,op.cit) that the names of the Yakkhas often give us a clue to their origin and function.These are taken from (a) their bodily appearance e.g.Kuvannā,Khara,Kharaloma,Kharadāthika,Citta,Cittarāja,Silesaloma,Sūciloma and Hāritā; (b) their place of residence,attributes of their realms,animals,plants,etc. e.g.Ajakalāpaka,ālavaka (forest dweller),Uppala,Kakudha (name of plant),Kumbhīra,Gumbiya,Disāmukha,Yamamoli,Vajira,Vajirapāni or Vajirabāhu,Sātāgira,Serīsaka; (c) qualities of character,etc. e.g.Adhamma,Katattha,Dhamma,Punnaka,Māra,Sakata; (d) embodiments of former persons e.g.Janavasabha (lord of men= Bimbisāra),Dīgha,Naradeva,Pandaka,Sīvaka,Serī.
Vessavana (q.v.) is often mentioned as king of the Yakkhas.He is one of the four Regent Gods,and the ātānātiya Sutta (D.iii.199ff) contains a vivid description of the Yakkha kingdom of Uttarakuru,with its numerous cities,crowds of inhabitants,parks,lakes and assembly halls.Vessavana is also called Kuvera,and the Yakkhas are his servants and messengers.They wait upon him in turn.The Yakkhinīs draw water for him,and often are so hard worked that many die in his service.E.g.J.iv.492.Mention is also made (e.g.DA.ii.370) of Yakkhadāsīs who have to dance and sing to the devas during the night.Early in the morning they drink a cup of toddy (surā) and go off into a deep sleep,from which they rise betimes in the evening ready for their duties.
No one,apparently,is free from this necessity of waiting upon the king even Janavasabba has to run errands for Vessavana (D.ii.207).Among the duties of Vessavana is the settling of disputes between the devas,and this keeps him (J.vi.270) much occupied.In this work he is helped by the Yakkhasenāpati,whose business it is to preside over the courts during eight days of each mouth (SNA.i.197).The Yakkhas hold regular assemblies on Manosilātala on the Bhagalavatīpabbata (SNA.i.187; cp.D.iii.201 and DA.iii.967).As followers of Kuvera,lord of riches,the Yakkhas are the guardians and the liberal spenders of underground riches,hidden treasures,etc.with which they delight men.E.g.Pv.ii.11; PvA.145; Pv.iv.12; PvA.274.These were seven yakkhas who guarded the wealth of Jotiyasetthi (DhA.iv.208f.).
It is difficult to decide whether the Yakkhas,who are the aborigines of Ceylon (Lankā),were considered human or non human.Kuvenī,one of their princesses,and her maid,can both assume different forms,but Vijaya marries Kuveni and has two children by her.(Cp.Vin.iii.37; iv.20; where sexual intercourse with a Yakkha is forbidden).The Yakkhas are invisible,and Vijaya is able to kill them only with the help of Kuveni (Mhv.vii.36); but their clothes are found fit for Vijaya and his followers to wear (Mhv.vii.38).Again,Cetiyā (q.v.) could make herself invisible and assume the form of a mare,but Pandukābhaya lived with her for four years and she gave him counsel in battle.Later,when he held festivities,he had the Yakkha Cittarāja on the throne beside him (Mhv.x.87).In all probability these Yakkhas were originally considered as humans,but later came to be confused with non humans.Their chief cities were Lankāpura and Sirīsavatthu.
The commonly accepted etymology of Yakkha is from the root yaj,meaning to sacrifice.Thus:yajanti tattha balim upaharantī ti yakkha (VvA.224),or pūjanīyabhāvato yakkho,ti uccati (VvA.333).